Fact sheets
developed by PREVNet
Kandersteg Phrase
Research Evidence
Today, an estimated 200 million children and youth around the world are being abused by their peers. (Prevalence.)
Bullying is pervasive internationally.1
It is estimated that 10-15 % of children repeatedly bully others, and 10-15% of children are repeatedly bullied.2,3
Despite its recent emergence, electronic bullying is very common among adolescents: Electronic bullying perpetration rates range from 4-18% and victimization rates are considerably higher at 7-35%.4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13
Students (n = 202,056) from 40 countries participated in the 2005/06 HBSC survey.14 Of these, 21,192 (10.7%) reported bullying others ≥ 2 or 3 times a month, 24,919 (12.6%) reported being victimized ≥ 2 or 3 times a month, and 7,138 (3.6%) reported dual involvement (both bullying others and being victimized.)
Every child and youth has the right to be respected and safe. (Rights to safety.)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights within the Charter of the United Nations (UN) represents the first modern international statement of human, and more specifically children’s rights.1 The document states that, “education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.”
Subsequent to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)has further defined children’s rights:15
Article 2(2) states that children’s rights entitle them to protection from, “all forms of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the child’s parents, legal guardians, or family members.”
Article 19(1) states that children’s rights entitle them to protection from, “all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child.”
Bullying is a violation of this basic human right. (Physical, Verbal, Social and Cyber bullying are violations of safety.)
Bullying has traditionally been defined by three elements: aggression (the intent to harm), a power differential, and repetition.16
Physical bullying includes behaviors such as hitting, kicking, shoving, spitting, beating up, stealing, and damaging property.17
Verbal bullying includes behaviors such as name-calling, mocking, hurtful teasing, humiliating or threatening someone, racist comments, or sexual harassment.2
Social (1) bullying includes behaviors such as eye rolling, turning away from someone, excluding others from the group, gossiping or spreading rumors, setting others up to look foolish, and damaging friendships.2
Electronic bullying includes the use of email, cell phones, text messages, and internet sites to threaten, harass, embarrass, socially exclude, or damage reputations and friendships.2
Bullying has recently been reconceptualised as a relationship problem that requires relationship solutions — because it is a form of aggression that unfolds in the context of a relationship in which one individual asserts interpersonal power through aggression.18 The power that children who bully hold over others can arise from their individual characteristics, such as superior size, strength, or age1; and from knowledge of others’ vulnerabilities.19 The power in bullying can also arise from a position in a social group, either in terms of generally high social status1, by membership in a group of peers who support bullying20, or through systemic power (e.g., class, race, mainstream culture).
The perspective of bullying as a relationship problem highlights that problems arise from complex interpersonal dynamics rather than simply from an individual child’s problem with aggression or with being unable to defend him or herself. Within the relationship context of bullying, those children who bully are learning how to use power and aggression to control and distress another; those children who are repeatedly victimized become trapped in abusive relationships that are increasingly difficult to escape.
The lessons of power and aggression learned in playground bullying can transfer to sexual harassment and dating aggression21 and may extend to workplace harassment, as well as marital, child, and elder abuse.
(1) For the purposes of these fact sheets, we have chosen the term “social” instead of “relational” bullying to be more inclusive of non-verbal bullying behaviors.
It is the moral responsibility of adults to ensure these rights are honored and that healthy development and citizenship are promoted. (Adults responsible for protection and education of children.)
Adults often perceive social aggression as normal behavior with few hurtful consequences, which is reflected in their reluctance to respond.22
Youth who bully others are more likely than other youth to experience low levels of parental monitoring (e.g., being in touch, enforcing a curfew, knowing where the youth is, knowing the youth’s friends).23,24,25,2,3
Teachers and school staff are in a unique and influential position to promote healthy relationships and to intervene in bullying situations.26,27
Students want teachers to take an active role both in classroom management of bullying and in promoting problem solving of student conflicts.28
A common denominator among successful school-based bullying prevention and intervention programs is a proactive principal who prioritizes the program and supports staff to devote time to the program.29
Many adults want more understanding and strategies to address bullying problems effectively. Adults want and need help to deal with bullying.
Both teachers and students report that teachers do not know how to effectively intervene in bullying, which prevents students from seeking help and contributes to teachers ignoring bullying.30,31
Teachers who participated in a bullying prevention program felt more confident about handling bullying problems, had more supportive attitudes about victimized students, and felt more positively about working with parents regarding bullying problems.32
Bullying is a form of aggression, involving the abuse of power in relationships
Bullying has traditionally been defined by three elements: aggression (the intent to harm), a power differential, and repetition.33
The power that children who bully hold over others can arise from their individual characteristics, such as superior size, strength, or age34; and from knowledge of others’ vulnerabilities35. The power in bullying can also arise from a position in a social group, either in terms of generally high social status36, by membership in a group of peers who support bullying37, or through systemic power (e.g., class, race, mainstream culture).
It is recognized globally as a complex and serious problem.
Students (n = 202,056) from 40 countries participated in the 2005/06 HBSC survey38. Of these, 21,192 (10.7%) reported bullying others ≥ 2 or 3 times a month, 24,919 (12.6%) reported being victimized ≥ 2 or 3 times a month, and 7,138 (3.6%) reported dual involvement (both bullying others and being victimized).
Across over 20 countries, children involved in bullying report greater levels of health problems and lower levels of psychosocial adjustment than children who are not involved.39,40
It has many faces, including the use of emerging technologies.
There are many forms of bullying and victimization, such as physical, verbal, social, cyber bullying, and sexual harassment, as well as bullying based on race, gender, sexual orientation, and disability.41,42,43,44,45,46
Bullying varies by age
Physical bullying declines with age, while verbal, social, and cyber bullying tend to increase between the ages of 11 and 15.47,48
The increase in social, verbal and cyber bullying may be due to puberty, school changes, and/or the development of social skills, which provide the opportunity for both positive social interactions and social deception.49
Although victimization tends to decline (physical forms in particular), verbal victimization (name calling, teasing about appearance, etc.) tends to remain at high rates throughout the high school years.10
Bullying varies by gender
Boys are more likely to bully others than girls. This finding is consistent across grade level, as well as across many countries and cultural groups.50,51,52
Boys tend to engage in physical forms of bullying53 and sexual harassment more than girls.54,55
Girls are victimized by sexual harassment and emotional aggression more frequently than boys.56
Boys tend to report higher levels of physical victimization compared to girls.57,3
Bullying varies by culture
44% of elementary school students and 33% of high school students who report being victimized because of their ethnicity also report bullying others for the same reason.5
Boys’ bullying involvement ranged from 8.6% in Sweden to 45.2% in Lithuania. This represents a five-fold difference between these countries. The midpoint prevalence rate for boys’ bullying across 40 countries was 23.4%.58
Among girls, the prevalence of bullying involvement ranged from 4.8% in Sweden to 35.8% in Lithuania, a seven-fold difference between these countries. The midpoint value for girls’ bullying across 40 countries was 15.8%.59
Japanese students are more likely to bully others, be victimized, and be dually involved when compared to South African and American students.60
In India, 31.4% of youth report being bullied, and boys report more bullying than girls.61
Canadian students are four times more likely to report electronic bullying than students from China.62
Chinese students are more likely to report electronic victimization than Canadian students.3
Children and youth involved in bullying suffer
|
Psychosocial Impact |
Bullying Others |
Being Victimized |
Dual Status (Both bullying others and being victimized) |
|
Psychological / Behavioral |
Poor psychological functioning65 Externalizing13 |
Psychological distress2 Externalizing13 Self-injurious behavior69
|
|
|
Emotion / Mood |
Felt sad70
|
Poor emotional adjustment71 Felt frustrated19 Stress is higher for victims who feel isolated74 |
Poor emotional adjustment1 Felt angry1 |
|
Mental Health |
Depressive Symptoms75 Alcohol abuse1 Substance use1
|
Depressive symptoms76,77,78,3,4 Major depression79 Suicidality (gay male youth)81 Suicidality82 Vulnerability to psychosis84 |
Depression85 Anxiety34 Suicidal behavior2 Suicidal ideation2 Substance use1 Alcohol abuse1 Self-injurious behavior2
|
|
Physical Health (2) |
Headaches45 Bedwetting45 |
Unspecified4 Vomiting86, Bed wetting3 Head ache56 Poor thriving4 High medication use88 |
Bed wetting45 Sleep disturbances45 Fatigue45 Abdominal pains45 Headaches45
|
|
Academic |
School absenteeism54 Negative school attitude2 Poor school adjustment1 Failing grades3 |
School absenteeism89 Negative school attitude11 Poor school achievement13 Detention, suspension90
|
Negative school attitude2 Poor school adjustment1 Poor school achievement13
|
|
Antisocial Behavior
|
Aggression7 Rule breaking7 Delinquency3 Alcohol abuse1 Substance use1 Antisocial personality34 |
Delinquent behavior28 Weapons carrying2 |
Relational, physical, sexual aggression1 Weapons carrying2 Substance Use1 Alcohol abuse1 Antisocial personality34 |
|
Social / Relational |
|
Poor peer relationships1 |
Relational, physical, sexual aggression1 Delinquent Peers1 Poor emotional bond with caregiver1 Poor peer relationships1 |
Children who are victimized are 3 times more likely to have headaches, sleeping difficulties, stomach pains, and bed wetting, as well as 2 times as likely to have a poor appetit.2
Children who bully are 2 times more likely to have headaches and 2.5 times more likely to have difficulties with bed wetting.2
Children who bully and are victimized are 6 times more likely to experience bed wetting, almost 4 times more likely to have a poor appetite, and 3 times more likely to have stomach pain.2
(2) For more detail see fact sheet “Bullying and Physical Health Problems”
Bullying and victimization problems begin early in life and for some last a lifetime
Bullying and victimization begin in early childhood and are associated, even at this early age, with behavior and school adjustment problems.91
Many youth decline in bullying over the high school years. Some youth, however, persist in their consistent use of power and aggression from childhood through adolescence.92
Bullying or harassment continues into adulthood: 82%, 74%, and 76% of men admitted to some form of psychological aggression against coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors, respectively.93
Many risk and protective factors associated with bullying are known...
Children who are exposed to aggression and violence between their parents are likely to learn that violence is the accepted way to handle conflict and are more likely to be involved in bullying and victimization problems.7
Bullying tends to be a peak in the 9th grade with the school transition.94,95
Peers contribute to bullying by providing attention and reinforcement to the child who is bullying, as well as by joining in bullying.12
Peers intervene more frequently than teachers13 and their interventions are effective in stopping bullying more than half the time.15,96
Recommended elements for bullying prevention programs: 4
•· Define bullying.
•· Identify multiple forms of bullying.
•· Address specific issues found in schools (e.g., fairness, social skill development).
•· Focus on healthy relationships and explanation of bullying dynamic.
•· Provide training materials and guides for educators, students, parents, and school staff.
•· Take a multi-faceted approach, including school-wide education, routine interventions, and intensive interventions.
•· Address peer processes that can promote prevention and stop bullying.
•· Make the program systemic (i.e., involve parents, peers, classes, staff, and the wider community) and ongoing
(i.e., fully integrate into the curriculum).
•· Include interventions and support for students who are bullied and those who bully.
•· Develop protocols for safe reporting of bullying incidents.
•· Include an evaluation component.
•· Create safe intervention programs for bystanders.
•· Promote a healthy social school environment.
Promote development and/or improvement of students’ social behavior.
...and prevention programs are being implemented in several countries with encouraging results.
Review papers are available and useful for identifying effective and ineffective bullying prevention strategies and programs.97,98,99
The majority of bullying programs were successful at reducing bullying and victimization at school.5,6
The mental and physical health, social, and academic consequences of bullying have an enormous impact on human and social capital. The costs of bullying burden our education, health care, social services, and criminal justice systems, as well as work force productivity and innovation.
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